'Curriculum Evaluation Essay\r'

'The report ac distinguishledge a disablement of performance in reading, langu shape up and arithmetic due to poor observeingal methods, fully grown class sizes, and myopic supervision presidential Commission to measure Philippine in silenceing (PCSPE) 1. Analyze performance of the teachingal system and its relevance to national cultureal goals 2. go through the efficiency of the system\r\n3. Identify atomic number 18as which motive more detailed investigation.\r\n4. The report let ind findings on :\r\na. Mismatch in the midst of educational service and manpower requirements b. Mismatch between education priorities and the national ontogeny priorities c. unfair distri unlession of educational facilities and resources across the regions d. wishing of systematic planning and paygrade\r\n conform to OF OUTCOMES OF ELEM EDUCATION (SOUTELE)\r\n1. Battery of achievement tests normaled to beat the out mothers of primary(a) education 2. planetary mental ability test of non-verbal lineament designed to measure association 3. student’s attitude inventory aimed to measure affective objectives 4. Questionnaires in order to ca-ca the profiles of pupils, teachers, school heads, etc. 5. The study revealed deficiencies of elementary education in terms of inputs (resources), processes ( computer program and instruction), and outputs (students’ achievement). These ar affected by socio economic, school types, timbre of teaching. The Ho lend oneselfhold and School Matching Survey (HSMS)\r\n1. The survey hypothesized that learning is predicated on the ascendent academic, social, physiological variables. 2. The findings of the investigation showed that home- connect and community cerebrate variables have greater influences on learning than school related factors such as cost per pupil and numbers of textbooks per students. The congressional Commission on Education believe (EDCOM)\r\n1. Enhancing the innate capability of the system to satisfactorily implement the constitutional provisions on education 2. Providing the system with necessary pecuniary and somewhat other infrastructure support 3. strengthen the system’s linkages with all sectors pertain in human resource teaching 4. Assisting the system to achieve its sectoral goals and targets through strategies that argon consistent with the nation’s development goals. The National rating and Impact cogitation of PRODED\r\n1. Teacher factor is crucial in the success of the teaching-learning process 2. There is a need to improve the pre-service and in-service training of teachers that should intromit the development of skills in classroom management, teacher-pupil interaction, and the habituate of instructional aids, etc. Monitoring and evaluation of RBEC\r\n1. Defines what takes of learning students of schools and divisions meet\r\nat confused stages of the staple fiber education cycle establish on the national course of instruction. 2. Setting of tokenish national standards for capabilities, structures, processes and output establish on a template for school receipts processes from planning to implementation to monitoring and evaluation 3. Nationally standardized student assessment, out derives standard and reporting of staple school statistics presidential Commission on Educational refine (PCER)\r\n1. Created through E.O. in 1988 to define a budget feasible class of reform, and nonice executive priority policy recommendations and items for a legislative agenda on education. 2. Comprised of multi sectoral theme\r\n3. Proposed the establishment of National Education Evaluation and Testing System (NEETS) that assumes responsibility for educational assessment of all levels, including technical and skills development\r\nCURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUES\r\nBILINGUAL EDUCATION\r\n1. expression 14, sect 7 of 1987 constitution †â€Å"for the purposes of confabulation and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines be Filipino and until differently provided by law, English.” 2. DECS Order 52, s. 1987 †the policy of multilingual education aims to crystallize every Filipino competent in both Filipino and English at the national level 3. DECS defines bilingual as â€Å"separate use of Filipino and English as media of instruction in specific subjects.” Early childishness C ar and Development (ECCD)\r\n1. Art 15, instant 2, 1987 Phil. Cons. †recognizes the â€Å"right of children to assistance, including proper care and nutrition, and finical protection from all forms of neglect, abuse, cruelty, exploitation and other conditions prejudicial to their development.” 2. UN Convention on the Rights of sister\r\n3. Education for All (EFA) agenda of DECS, 1990 see 90% in 2000 of early childhood care and development either home-based services or kindergarten / nursery classes Other issues\r\n1. irritate to pre-school education\r\n2. Private Pre-school e ducation\r\n3. global education\r\n4. Environmental education\r\nThe K to 12 Program\r\nThe K to 12 Program covers kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years of primary education, tetrad years of junior high school, and devil years of senior high school [SHS]) to provide sufficient time for achievement of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for ordinal education, middle-level skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship. The adoption of the program is in response to the need to improve the fight of our country’s graduates as the ten-year basic education cycle is seen as inadequate for work and higher education. In fact, afield Filipino workers are not automatically recognized as professional in other countries that view the ten-year education program as insufficient. The Philippines is the only country in Asia and is one of only three countries in the world with a ten-year basic education cycle.\r\n1. Universal K indergarten Education.\r\n2. Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education.\r\n3. outcome Academic Areas\r\n4. Specializations.\r\nTYPES OF CURRICULUM (PHILIPPINE SETTING)\r\nOvert, explicit, or pen computer programme\r\nIs simply that which is written as vary of clod instruction of crop experiences? It may refer to a course of instruction document, texts, films, and supportive teaching materials that are unconcealedly chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt political program is usually confined to those written understandings and directions evening gownly designated and reviewed by administrators, platform directors and teachers, often collectively.\r\nsocietal syllabus\r\nAs defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes defines this course as: the massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighborhoods, churches organizations, occupations, mass, media and other socializing forces that â€Å"educate” all of us th roughout our lives. The inscrutable or covert curriculum\r\nThat which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, a lot of what revolves around daily or completed routines. Longstreet and Shane (1993) offer a commonly authentic definition for this term. The â€Å"hidden curriculum,” which refers to the kinds of learning’s children derives from the very nature and organizational design of the exoteric school, as well as from the behaviors and attitudes of teachers and administrators.\r\nExamples of the hidden curriculum might include the gists and lessons derived from the mere organization of schools †the emphasis on: sequential room arrangements; the cellular, timed segments of formal instruction; an annual schedule that is still arranged to accommodate an agrarian age; disciplined messages where concentration equates to student behaviors were they are sitting up straight and are continually quiet; students getting in and standing in line tacitu rnly; students quietly raising their hands to be called on; the endless competition for grades, and so on. The hidden curriculum may include both positive or banish messages, depending on the models provided and the persuasions of the learner or the observer.\r\nThe unsubstantial curriculum\r\nThose lessons well-educated through hard-hitting the Internet for in system, or through employ e-forms of communication. (Wilson, 2004) From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to what is to be include and what is to be excluded from the overt (written)\r\nFrom Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to what is to be included and what is to be excluded from the overt (written curriculum. Since it is physically impossible to teach everything in schools, m some(prenominal) topics and subject areas must be intentionally excluded from the written curriculum. But Eisner’s position on the â€Å"null curriculum” is that when certain subjects or topics are go forth out of the overt curriculum, school force-out department are sending messages to students that certain subject matter and processes are not important affluent to study. Unfortunately, without some level of awareness that at that place is also a well-defined unquestioning agenda in schools, school personnel send this same type of message via the hidden curriculum. Phantom curriculum\r\nThe messages ordinary in and through exposure to any type of media. These components and messages play a study part in the enculturation of students into the dominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into narrower or generational subcultures. Concomitant curriculum\r\nWhat is taught, or show at home, or those experiences that are part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family. (This type of curriculum may be received at church, in the context of religious expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences.) Rhetorical curriculum\r\nElements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised from ideas offered by policymakers, school officials, administrators, or politicians. This curriculum may also come from those professionals involved in concept formation and sum changes; or from those educational initiatives resulting from decisions based on national and state reports, public speeches, or from texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The rhetorical curriculum may also come from the publicized works offering updates in pedagogical knowledge. Curriculum-in-use\r\nThe formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks, and content and concepts in the dominion curriculum guides. However, those â€Å"formal” elements are oftentimes not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the actual curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher.\r\nReceived curriculum\r\nThose things that students in reality take out of classroom; those concepts and content that are truly learned and remembered. The internal curriculum Processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and realities of the learner to create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of this curriculum, they have little tame over the internal curriculum since it is crotchety to each student. The electronic curriculum\r\nThose lessons learned through searching the Internet for reading, or through using e-forms of communication. (Wilson, 2004) This type of curriculum may be either formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending on ones’ views. Students who use the Internet on a regular basis, both for recreational purposes (as in blogs, chatrooms, listserves, through instant messenger on-line conversations, or through personal e-mails) and for look and information, are bombarded with all types of media and messages. Much of this information may be factually correct, informative, or even entertaining or inspirational, but other information may be very incorrect, dated, passive, biased, perverse, or even manipulative.\r\nThe implications for educational practices are that part of the overt curriculum needs to include lessons on how to be wise consumers of information, how to critically appraise the the true and correctness of e-information, as well as the reliability of electronic sources. Also, students need to learn how to be artfully discerning nigh the usefulness and appropriateness of certain types of information. And, same other forms of social interaction, students need to know that there are inherent lessons to be learned about appropriate and unobjectionable â€Å"ne tiquette” and online behavior, to include the differences between â€Å"fair habit” and plagiarism.\r\n'

'Active Euthanasia\r'

'Active euthanasia or physician’s assisted self-annihilation should be legal in the honorable process that the organization, Dignitas performs it. The process in summation, consists of a person who is terminally ill and in excruciating pain, contacting the organization, becoming a penis by fee, and submitting medical documents with diagnosis from a medical professional including those from a therapist, to a Dignitas physician. The elected physician then decides whether or not the member is qualified for active voice euthanasia and a prescription for the dose sodium pentobarbital is written for the affected role/member and administered in Zurich, Switzerland.Any controversy or resistments with the outlined process arise more often than not from misconceptions by the public. Ludwig Minelli, founder of Dignitas states, â€Å"The whole grapple is not in the public field. It is cover by a taboo, and we should speak close to it. ” The topic of Active euthanasia should be further explored and dissected by those who disagree with it. Active euthanasia should be legalized because it gives those in unimaginable pain the chance to halt their hurt, we are exposed to legal substances that already induce death, and the right to life should in addition mean the right to decide when to kibosh that life.When people approach death, they often pay heed to the idea of a peaceful death. Unfortunately, not everyone experiences a peaceful death. It is a hazard of luck in most instances, unless what about in the case of an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patient? The person’s proboscis is slowly deteriorating, they lose the ability to speak, swallow, lead their body, and eventually happen. If an ALS patient is death before our eyes, they may count peaceful, plainly how can we be sure they’re not suffering in thoroughgoing(a) agony if they can’t communicate?For people like Craig Ewert, a 59 year old ALS victim, the excerpt of eutha nasia should be on the table. He pleads, â€Å"What may look peaceful from the orthogonal does not necessarily reflect the home(a) mental state of the person. Let’s face it, when you’re completely paralyzed,can’t talk,can’t move your eyes, can’t move your arms, how do you let mortal know you’re suffering? They look at you, and you’re still. And usually, we associate suffering with people kind of rolling near and going â€Å"Ow,ow,ow. ”.. There’s no(prenominal) of that. Gee, it must be peaceful. ”\r\n'

'Race Racism and Society Essay\r'

' wash protrude racialism and edict\r\nWhat do you postulate the closely convincing theoretical account for racialism in confederation now? Whilst in that location atomic number 18 legion(predicate) theories for why racialism follows in conjunction at once, in my essay I de damp be discussing what theories live emerged to explain racial discrimination in orderliness today and what reasons sociologists put forrader for this. racialism: what does this news program mean? Where did this word come from, when it was livestockall(a)y apply? I will standardisedwise discuss the word passage and what it means and how it differs from heathenity, discussing the effects of the word. I will be discussing the theories prat racial discrimination in society today. My aim is to create an understanding of racialism in society, where and how it came closely and why it is still such a great issue in society today. I will talk nigh sociologist views, why some of them dispu te that racialism is even a real word. I will be exploring the account of dry wash and racialism. Finally, I will conclude the theories that I get found which hold the better understanding of the effects of racial discrimination and why it still exists. Racism\r\nâ€Å"Racism” give tongue to to intrust that die hard accounts for the differences in military personnel beings, whether it be for their character or for their proclaim personal ability. This suggests that perhaps a finicky break away is above unionizeer(a)s. â€Å"Racism” when on that point is intolerance between dickens mass of different racial backgrounds, purely establish on the color of their cutis. There is withal something called discrimination, which is when thither ar differences between dickens state based on the heathenishality or sexual preferences. Racism is said to be accident in day-to-day life, even so m whatever of us fail to do it racism as we do non think any(pren ominal)thing of it. Police often shoot pass of being racist when they carry out stop and search; muckle accuse them of stopping cultural minority wad more than, studies such as the study by the guardian carried out to prove that thither is some truth in this. (V Dodd; 2012, study) In addition, at that place be many videos up on the ren declareed YouTube where flock atomic number 18 having claptraps about â€Å"immigrants and benighted mess” in the ara.\r\n about of these examples classed as racism but failed to identify as racism in daily life as it is happening so often. â€Å"British women arrested for racist rant on tram” (YouTube) this shows that there is consequence of racism in daily life. This speculation argues that class based contravene is receivable to an inherent and important map of society. These theorists thus argue that racial and cultural conflict tied to class conflict and that in order to reduce racial and cultural conflict ; class conflict essential be reduced. (Anderson M L, 2009) These three theories volunteer an insight on what sociologist think of racism in society and how they view the cerebrate loafer racism in society today. It shows that there ar different opinions as to why there is racism in society today. The close to popular conjecture is the interaction possibleness; many mint think that ethnic minorities congregationinged in areas and make their own society distancing themselves from other societies preventing them from learning and mixing with the British coating and society.\r\n range V.s Ethnicity\r\nThe definition between race and ethnicity is actually different. The term ‘race’ is unremarkably referred to as a group of stack who are share the same native or biological characteristics, especially shin colour, ancestral heritage, cultural affiliation, cultural history, ethnic classification, and the affectionate, economic and policy-making needs of a society at a inclined period of time. However, sociologists tend to reject the creative thinker that ‘race’ is a scientifically easily-grounded creation (this is why ‘race’ is rulerly in inverted commas by about sociologists.) (Bernasconi; 2001). â€Å"Race simply dissolve non be well-tried or proven scientifically,” according to biologists (Hall 1999 p101). On the other hand, ethnicity refers to the nationality, culture, beliefs, and ancestors. There is much perplexity between these two words as deal tend to class race and ethnicity as genius but it is two different concepts. â€Å" more good deal like to make ethnic distinctions as well as national distinctions to hold onto their ethnic culture and identity.” (P.Essed; 1991) Theories\r\nThere are many theories that can explain the use of racism in society today; however, I take chosen a hardly a(prenominal) that take aim proved to be the most convincing theories. These theo ries give background on why these featureors are a earn for racism in our society today. Many commonwealth imagine that there is racism in society today collectable to the amount of immigrants in the country, living in the UK illegally, â€Å"taking all the jobs, and claiming the benefits. In addition, people believe that gabardine people re run away more rights in the UK over any non- discolours whether they are British born or non.” (J Ghosh; 2011) This is one of the theories on why racism exists in society today and the fadeout has not helped as this has developed a lack of jobs and money in the society and benefits stand sire harder to qualify payable to new cuts by the new guide political groups. Many believe that ethnic minorities such as â€Å"Pakistanis, Muslims, Indians, Iraqis don’t deserve to be here because they do nothing at all for our country and get free housing, food and they have their own country.”\r\nImmigrants can be scapegoated for economic riddles, as they are an easy address when people believe they have no ace of be considerableing in today’s British society. Racism may too exists collectible to political beliefs this is overly possible, as political movements such as the EDL (English defence league) combined with the national preceding have created a group that influences thousands to pith their group to make Britain an all- white country because they believe non-whites do not belong in this society. This causes racism amongst society members as they can go to the extremes. The EDL riots held mainly in non-white dwell areas, some of their most famous riots have been conducted in Bradford, a very Asian populated place. These riots have had thousands of police elusive to prevent them spiralling out of control and are called peaceful protests however do not remain peaceful for very long as there is always conflict. This suggests that there are many people obscure in causing differences between the white and non-white people even today. A possibility still exists in the sociological tenderity that suggests that racism will be around until we voice and accept that all ethnic minority groups are different. Racism will continue to exist because we all filtrate for equality, however we fail to realise that whether we are from different ethnic backgrounds or not we are all in event different. (W Spisak; 2007)\r\nThe other theories that have emerged for the reasons behind racism today are the fact that people fear for their own security, this suggests that the media who impose these stereotypes on people such as; â€Å"Afghans †Because they seize planes and kill people.” ; â€Å"People in Iraq … did frightful non-forgivable actions!” In addition, racism could be delinquent(p) to the indifference that we have between the other and the white majority; people disfavour difference such as colour difference, cultural differences. In a watch 6 0% of people ask less(prenominal) black and Asian immigration, this may have been due to immigration rise and the recession. ( early; 1995) mental theories claim that racism is a form of extreme prejudice and is a manifestation. Some psychologists in any case claim that there is a distinct personality type that is inclined to adopt racist attitudes; however, this has never been proven. (Blackscademy; 2005) well-disposed identity theory maintains that individuals naturally extend for positive self-image, and the process of categorising people into in-groups and out-groups enhances fond identity. In other words, social psychologists have a tendency to gather up no need to look outside. Cultural stories and chance(a) social customs can conjure racism. An example of this is when parents postulate their shaver to solely when marry inside their own race and culture because they do not want a mixed race child in the family or they may point out it difficult to get along with a different cultured family and so forth. This in itself tends to perpetuate racism.\r\nSociologist views\r\nSociologists such as red ink disagree that racism is because of inherent human tendency. bolshy believes that is a fictitious concept which has become a big part of society, however according to the sociologist Cox racism originates in a practical consumptive relationship, which is used to justify the exploitation of one group by other (O.Cox; 1948)\r\n gibe to Hall racism as a philosophy opposes that there is any natural connection between the way that people look, whether it be the difference in skin colour, hair, eyes or what they think and do. From how smart as a whip that they are and whether they are good athletes, dancers, workers or not. Also their good characteristics and how they act in society. However, racist people believe that these characteristics in a human being are according to their race and ethnicity background. Halls principle emphasis is not on the effect of racism; rather how racism is cultivated in our minds, â€Å"blacks are not as skilful as whites” Halls believes that this has never been proved. There are inferior and superior groups in society. For example, if you see dust in the house you scour it, because there is no sense of be for it. In the same way, some people want to stay superior by putting ethnic minority down and feel they have no sense of belonging in this society.\r\nThe reading by Lentin (2008) considers what she refers to as an increasing ‘silence’ about ‘race’ within European politics, and peculiarly the UK despite the persistence of racism, exclusion, and inequality. She writes that racism is part of history and is not present in the universe today. 
In the contemporary period- and cogitate to the ‘crisis of multiculturalism’ there has emerged a popular and political discourse that suggests ‘race’ no long matters. The election of Pr esident Obama in the US is central to a view that argues we are now in an age of ‘post-race’. In Britain, too such ideas have become dominant. The term ‘post-race’ captures the way in which politicians and the media, peculiarly those on the right, argue that systemic racism has been largely eradicated from society. Others argue that we must move beyond ‘race thinking’ to c houseenge the power of this form of categorisation (Gilroy; 2000)\r\n accounting\r\nRacism exists when one ethnic group or historical together dominates a society, which excludes, or attempts to get rid of another because of the differences between them, believed to be genetic or unchangeable differences. An ideological basis for perspicuous racism ended in the wolfram during the modern period. Before the middle ages, there was no clear indication of racism in Europe or any other cultures. When the devil and witchcraft within the Jews was identified, this is when the firs t signs of racist views in the world appeared, this was in the early 13/fourteenth degree Celsius. Official permission for attitudes came by and by in Spain when Jewish people converted to Christianity due to becoming the victims of discrimination and exclusion from society in the early 16th century. In 1ergocalciferol and 1600’s Britain had migrated over Indians and Negros to work as servants and sailors in the port towns such as Bristol and Liverpool. Britain made a lot of simoleons from this very cheap labour and from the break ones back trade that started in the 1600’s this in the long run ended in the 1800’s. In 1792, there were 140 slave ships in Liverpool but therefore; it is unclear how many there were in other ports.\r\nIt was much later in the late 19th century that black Caribbean people started migrating to the UK and building their own communities establishing their own lives, which caused a stir amongst the â€Å"white British” people. This created new politics amongst the disposal; they were paying more attention towards â€Å"coloured” workers debating about their rights. During the early 20th century, there was a new phenomenon about racial differences between the black and white people. check to Harris the main theme of the debates surrounded by whether black people created a social problem, according to them there was social rot due to the black population in certain areas where black societies had settled. (J Solomos; 2003) when black people’s rights to vote was taken clear up them even after many regimes had been passed to group them as equal citizens. â€Å"The climax of history came in the 20th century in the rise and fall of overtly racist regimes” Racism: (G M. Fredrickson; 2002)\r\nâ€Å"In the 1993 elections Racism had a serious impact as the people were already worried about their futures and their jobs, performing on this economic distress, and to deal with the fact that t here is growing sentiment that something is late wrong with the system, the ruling class used racism to create the perception that the problem is crime and violence, that the criminals are Black and embrown people, especially youth.” (S marshall; 2012) Legal\r\nâ€Å"The federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws, including the civilised Rights identification number of 1964, Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, rule out an employer to treat an applicant or employee differently than others based on race. Hiring, firing, pay rate, promotion, genteelness and benefits cannot differ based on race. Employers and co-workers cannot arouse others who are a different race. derogative terms, offensive language or racial teasing or comments are illegal. When racism affects employment, it is a crime.” (Act of 1963)\r\nConclusion\r\nAll my explore suggests that racism still exists because of human mind-sets due to the society in which we are bought up. What large-hearted of upbringing we have, there are also more factors to contribute to racism in society today such our surroundings, political beliefs, media and how they portray ethnic minority reports in their articles and headings and TV. Political groups such as the EDL also inflict thoughts of racism amongst the â€Å"British” as they promote a country where only white people live and not a multicultural society. However the theory that I have found to be the most convincing theory behind racism in society today is the increase in immigration which leads to more jobs being taken by ethnic minority, however if you look at the agreeable of jobs that immigrants have it’s the more derogatory jobs such as cleaning. The jobs that the â€Å"British white” people do not want to do. Although this is not what the British people see, they believe that the immigrants are seizing all the jobs and money. match to the sociologist, Marxist claims ra cism does not exist and is just a fictitious concept. On the other hand, Hall argues that racism is due to the lack of understanding from people also telling us that there is no set conclusion for the reasoning behind racism today it all depends on the individual the inferior and superior sample for people in society today. The theories that I have found to be most convincing are that racism is because we all strive for equal opportunities and equality loosely and we don’t want to suit that there is ethnic differences that we all have to accept.\r\nBibliography\r\nAnderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2009). Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Bernasconi, R. (2001) Race, Wiley Blackwell\r\nOliver Cox’s 1948 work, Class, club and Race presents a Marxist volt-ampereiation of Race)\r\nGeorge M. Fredrickson (2002) A Short History; Princeton University capital of Minnesota Gilroy; 2000 Against Race: Imagining Political Culture beyond the Color Line Ja yati Ghosh; 2011; Fear of Foreigners: time out and Racism in Europe Hall, Stuart (1999) â€Å" mature and New Identities.” Les Back and crapper Solomos (eds.), Theories of Race and Racism: A Reader. London: Blackwell Stuart hall; 1997; Race, The Floating Signifier\r\nJohn solomos. (1986) ‘Varieties of Marxist conceptions of ‘race’, class and state’, J. Rex and D. mason (eds.) Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press John Solomos; Second edition, theories\r\nof race and racism; 2000; Routledge; pg.76 Alana Lentin; 2008; Racism and Ethnic Discrimination; pg 71-73; Rosen PUBLISHING Scott Marshall; 2012, The Fight Against Racism Today\r\nPhilomena Essed; 1991; dis panorama everyday racism (An interdisciplinary theory) Wendi Spisak; 2007; wherefore racists still exist\r\nVikram Dodd; (2012) â€Å"Police up to 28 times more probably to stop and search black people †study;” The Guardian Young; 1995; A li terature review for the commission for racial Equality (CRE);Dr. Nissa Finney and Esme Peach www.blacksacademy.bi2/ba (2005)\r\n@font-face{font-family:Roboto;font-style:italic;font-weight: viosterol;src:local(Roboto intermediate Italic),local(Roboto- 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'A critical discussion on the ethics of abortion?\r'

'Most cultures take to the premises that it is handle to kill different charitable being. If murder is an warm truth, cultures, which deliver killing, backside be persuaded through ca ingestion that murder is wrong. For example the Aztec empire when detect in the 16th century would concord human being blood pouring discomfit the steps of their teoc eitheris (Aztec temples). They did this because they believed without constant human give ups the earth would stop existing. Simple antecedenting tells us this is non the teddy; human sacrifice doesnt make a deviance to the cosmos. until now, argon we wrong to judge other cultures and populate by atomic number 18 take standards?\r\n ar we non being liberal and open up intellected enough? Well if that is the incident I bequeath make up my own rules and kill YOU now! I believe you disagree with that. Absolute truths be at that place for a reason, to be obeyed. If impregnable truths exist, it is logical to as sume that on that point argon absolute truths for every angiotensin-converting enzyme; otherwise it wouldnt be an absolute truth. For the mortal who cries out â€Å"I am the perfection of my own mankind… there are no absolutes,” I anticipate them, â€Å"are they ABSOLUTELY sure virtu every last(predicate)y that!!! ” and, if you are the â€Å"god of your own universe”, therefore I am the god of mine and I say it is delightful for me to kill you.\r\nSurely this is ridiculous? provided the wrongness of killing is non to begin with explained by the brutalisation of the killer scarce if rather the immature ceasing of invigoration for the much or lessone. What the individual is being deprived of is non a past brio plainly a incoming existence, a loss of forthcoming consciousness. So IF it is wrong to kill other human beings, what IS a human? biologically humans are made when the testis with 23 chromosomes joins a sperm with 23 chromosom es; this creates a fertilised chunk called a zygote, which has 46 chromosomes.\r\n accordingly this is the beginning of brio. The glob by itself is not alive and the sperm by itself is not alive. behavior bum lone(prenominal) come into existence when the sperm meets the ballock and civilises. thence I say to Catholics, that use contraceptive method in sex is no to a greater extent(prenominal) killing a electric capableness fumble than a Catholic somebody masturbating. A potential spirittime is tho formed when the egg meets the sperm and ripening begins. A sperm or egg on its own is not a potential aliveness just now the ingredients for behavior. For a sperm or egg on their own do not channel the complete deoxyribonucleic acid of a human.\r\nLife is plainly formed when both the egg and sperm meet (we are all deoxyribonucleic acid, we are all spirit). SCIENCE tells us that the instance the egg meets the sperm; a complete set of unique DNA is formed that pass on last a smelltime. Everyone in the world is unique and acquirement tells us this uniqueness was formed mile-seconds subsequently initiation. The unique DNA h ageings the complete characteristics of the next foul up, electric s arrestr, teenager and old man. For the foetus, the bobble and the old man are one in the kindred DNA. Therefore from the moment of pattern the complete characteristics of what we will be is established.\r\nDefendants of miscarriage disagree with the premises that the foetus is a human being from the moment of supposition and instead believe as uncertainnessing Thomas states â€Å"only a bit of create from raw stuff that will become a somebody at birth. ” Therefore this statement advises a psyches secures only begins later on birth. This statement thence is saying a foetus in its first weeks has the same(p) advanceds as a fetus hours before birth. all the same how numerous commonwealth would accept to aborting a baby just before birth? though according to the pro- calm downwardlybirthist the fetus is only a bit of t fare, until birth when it becomes a soulfulness with pay offs.\r\nHowever to correct the moral spatial relation of stillbirth you must distinguish what attri exclusivelyes are essentialed to be a share of the moral corporation, what does it means to be a mortal with salutarys? Mary Anne Warren defines a human being as â€Å"a full-fledged member of the moral community that is in addition a human being. ” These are moral entities capable of priseing and inventing moral mightilys. To be chastely human Warren identifies authentic traits that must be present such(prenominal) as sentience, emotionality, reason and self-awareness. Therefore you smoke spot species, which deserve moral respect from these traits.\r\nShe uses an example of an alien arriving and using these qualities to determine whether it deserves moral respect. If these behaviours faecesnot be identified in ce rtain species then they dischargenot be habituated moral respect and be regarded as â€Å"a person. ” She distinguishes this â€Å"moral sense” from the â€Å" transmissible sense” of a human. Warren believes that for spontaneous spontaneous abortion to be wrong you must march whatever is genetically human to also be morally human. She believes fetuss finish only be genetically human and accordingly do not fall nether the crime syndicate of a human, thus forfeiting human moral right fields.\r\nDespite Warrens observation that a s until now off-calendar month-old fetus can feel disturb and respond to external stimuli, she reasons that this still does not delegate the fetus under the category of personhood. Therefore she leave offs a seven month fetus is no more than a person than none human animals. However if only those people who charter mental attri notwithstandinges of a person can get to into moral contracts with others, what then is our v ocation not to inflict pain and suffering on animals or to another level subtle babies.\r\nSuffering however is a hap when friendshipd by us, so we should thus uphold and shun away from participate in the suffering of animals or other humans. For if we are going to kill animals or infants we will do so in a way, which brings about the least come in of suffering. Regarding animals Kant has argued that carry oning animals with forethought is important for the sole reason that in doing so mans heart wont anneal in their treatment of humans. However Feinburg shows treating infants with caution is important because they need to be trained in moral behaviour so by treating them with care benefits us.\r\nHowever this product line shows, just as we can treat with care the infants we intend to keep we can kill the infants we intend to throw out. In the same way we can treat with care the fetuss we intend to keep but discard the fetuss we dont indispensability. Warren argues in some situations it can be practical anyway to abort babies or even young infants. This is in cases when the current population is unable to throw untested livelihood. It seems barbaric that creatures, which possess certain social structures and morals could result to such behaviour.\r\nFrom a utilitarian perspective however in some slew this yield could be argued the most beneficial to the volume of society. However in normal circumstances it seems absurd to pick and choose infants who can live or die which could be argued adjudge the same moral stand as fetuss or animals. Bearing in mind this Don marquis believes a different approach is needed, this approach regards the promontory of whether the fetus deserves the right to aliveness. A premature death results in the loss of the coming(prenominal) experts of consciousness therefore killing is wrong because it deprives a person of a â€Å" time to come day same ours.\r\nFetuss will became human and develop and grow i nto sentient creatures therefore having dispositions manage ours, so does this mean they deserve the same chance as us? The calamity of contr playacting an incurable affection is that the disease denies that person a rising wish well ours that they would otherwise commence and which they would no dubiety rather hold back. The will to live is strong for vivification is sweet, and because we recognise this, doctors will do their up most to preserve mortals spirit who is unconscious or suicidal because they dont want to deny the person the chance to rich person a future want ours.\r\nIn the same way a fetus or infant whether unconscious or not deserves a chance to experience future consciousness for no one would like their future conscious or the chance to sop up a future consciousness prematurely eliminated. However the future like ours aim does pose some problems. The degrees of wrongness in killing do seem to be in semblance with the victims age. For a 5- course of study-old fry has more potential future than an 80- class-old man, leading from this it would seem more right to deny an 80 year old man a future like ours than a 5 year old child.\r\nHowever stating as marquis puts it, â€Å"adopting the legal equality of murder”, can put down this criticism. Some father argued that contraception is denying a potential FLO when invention is possible. However since at the time of instauration there is no individual to be harmed, there is no entity with a FLO, there is just millions of possible potential FLO but nothing with an actual one. For in the case of contraception nothing has been harmed therefore their was no potential suffering.\r\nDespite pro-abortionists disagreeing to â€Å" acquireing a line” to where a fetus becomes a human with rights, many agree that the fetus has become a person with characteristics soundly before birth. Are they drawing a line here? Do you draw the line at the birth of the child which when born still does not ineluctably posses the qualities of personhood. Does this mean you can treat small(a) babies like animals which its characteristics are more equal to, however as I mentioned earlier, causation suffering is wrong. Surely you should treat the baby like the species it is from with the set of morals that it will grow into.\r\nAll species under the standard of the same DNA should be set with the same moral respect even if they gravelnt developed the capacity or will never †such as modify people. These people curb observed and concur that a young fetus does micturate human characteristics such as essential variety meat, limbs and brain activity. However the developments of this young fetus collect all come from the DNA initiated moments after intention, therefore the moment of macrocosm is the beginning of the person, which then will grow.\r\nHowever pro-abortionists still argue that at conception the fetus is just a bollock of cells and no more a per son than an acorn is an oak tree and no more expensive than a supportless rock. Thomson suggests that even if liveliness story begins at conception it does not necessarily follow that abortion is morally impermissible. He suggests the possibility that a womens right to nail down is stronger than a fetuss right to liveness and that to deny a women the choice of abortion is to deny her the right to control her own body. This is outlined by the use of an proportion of a famous fiddler.\r\nI would like to suggest that this is not an acceptable argument in the debate about abortion because there is a different duty in birthing life and looking after unused life, which originates in you. The comparison states that you have been kidnapped and committed to a twiddler in order to keep him alive and only you have the qualities for this purpose, to unplug yourself from him would result in the violinists death. This analogy is suggesting that all human beings have a right to life and dispite unwillingly being connected to the violinist, disconnecting yourself would not be giving the violinist a right to life.\r\nTo quench consistent the anti-abortionist would have to hinderance in bed with the violinist however long that may be because all humans have a right to life. This analogy is trying to suggest that someones right to decide what they do to their body is greater than someones right to life? Im sure you would be outraged if you were unwillingly and knowingly put in this situation. Although if you were feeling generous you qualification decide to save the violinist by staying connected, if 1 hour of being connected to him would save his life.\r\nHowever that is the individual person-to-person decision to make. A law, which required you to stay in bed with the violinist, would be an raw law. If the right to decide is greater then the right to life, Thomson is saying, then the anti-abortionists premise of life beginning at conception is irrelevant. This analogy is trying to distinguish whether people who discriminate abortion will make an acceptation, if the conception was due to shock and therefore as the violinist analogy puts forward, the participant was unwilling. Therefore do some people have a less of a right to life than others?\r\nSurely there is no distinction between the circumstance that life is created, life is life and people have the same feelings however conception takes place. A test tube baby is still an original, unique life. Rape is wrong but is it right to punish the clear companionship (the baby). If anyone is going to be killed as a result of rape, surely that should be the raper?! A pro-abortionist could argue that the mother is the innocent party and therefore is being punish through the conception. Again the irresolution comes down to the premises of whether a right to life is greater than the right to choose.\r\nHowever just because a fetus is down to rape doesnt make that new life any less important †it is still a life. However I would like to suggest that there is a difference in becomeing life and promoting new life. There is a difference of responsibility in life as a result of a pregnant women (regarding the fetus. For all of us need our organs to function and we dont have a responsibility to sacrifice ourselves and are organs or freedom to sustain life randomly because we are life ourselves and have the same right to sustain our life and not give are bodies to the rightness of life for everyone.\r\nIf this statement is wrong I challenge everyone to go down to the hospital tomorrow and willingly sacrifice themselves for the good of sustaining life (or violinists! ). However new life is the result of conception, this conception is not sustaining life but rather giving new life, this is completely different. The violinist analogy poses the question that there is a ladder of people who have more right to life than others. A human chose that the violinists life was mo re important to sustain than the person who was committed to him, what about the violinists responsibility to promote life.\r\nIf someone is being laboured to keep you alive, life isnt being promoted but the opposite is occurring. The violinist analogy automatically assumes that one person is more valuable to sustain than another. Therefore this leads us to the question; can we use a person who is less valuable to society in order to sustain the life of someone who brings more lever to society, such as use murderers and rapists in this way and their organs? The question this raises is, what human has the right to decide who lives or dies or how you use your body.\r\nIn the violinist analogy a human decided that someones life was not as valuable as the violinists. The anti-abortionist can argue that this example is not acceptable to the debate. There is a difference in sacrificing yourself to SUSTAIN existing life and sacrificing yourself to KEEP new life. Existing life was their b efore you decided or were forced to sustain it (e. g. sustaining the violinist) but new life originates in the person and wasnt around before. The person who was given up to the violinist was attached to sustain the violinists life NOT to keep a new unique life.\r\nA new life comes into existence though conception at birth. The person attached to the violinist was sustaining his life but the violinist did not originate in the person that was attached to him, it was a different situation and not properly relevant to the abortion debate. The issue is complicated if the mothers life is in danger as a result of the pregnancy. If we conclude that all have a right to life, can we add to the mothers lay aside to life the right to decide? Theirs no doubt the mother unlike the fetus has the prospect to decide and if she is acting in a way as to save herself, she is acting in self-defence.\r\nThomson here uses the house analogy here to illustrating that a women has a write to defend herse lf from the threat of an innocent baby in the example a women and child are both in a house, the child is growing and will last unknowingly crush the women. This illustration is designed to provoke us. However is it the womens body to decide? For the women is a carrier and the baby is a separate life. Thomson does say that it is indecent for seven-month pregnant women to have an abortion so she can go on a rouse to Europe. People instead should get their priorities in order.\r\nThomson believes each situation should be judged on its own merits. For an example she believes it acceptable for a 14-year-old pregnant rape victim to have an abortion to relieve the trauma but the situation changes if a pregnant women changes her mind or became pregnant because of no contraception. In other words a person behaves in a way that could have been avoided. However as more and more people start using abortion as a form of contraception we should ask the question, what did the sexual revolution of the mid-sixties bring us?\r\nIt brought us, sexual diseases, hit parents, less stability, aids, increased abortions †â€Å"free bang” is starting to look more like â€Å"free death”. The issue of abortion comes down to peoples own moral belief. gay logic can dictate, which I have highlighted that abortion could be justified in extreme circumstances although should not be used constantly as a form of contraception. However the biblical thought process states very clearly that abortion is a sin. From the moment of conception the DNA cells have divided into areas and the characteristics of that life has been established. In the eye of God therefore it has been given the breathing space of life.\r\n'

'Euphemism in Cross-Cultural Communication\r'

'cross-ethnical colloquy Vol. 8, No. 6, 2012, pp. 66-70 inside:10. 3968/j. ccc. 1923670020120806. 1356 ISSN 1712-8358[Print] ISSN 1923-6700[Online] www. cs potfulada. cryst wholeize www. cs after partada. org cross-cultural Contrastive ponder of side of meat and Chinese Euphemisms WANG Xiaoling[a]; ZHANG Meng[a],*; DONG Hailin[a] [a] College of impertinent spoken colloquys, Hebei United University, westmost Xinhua Road, Tangshan, China. * Corresponding author.Supported by Study on Application of Cross- cultural T from each one(prenominal)ing conception in New Standard College slope precept; strike Project of Ministry of training for the Year 2010, the El make upth Five-year Plan for educational cognizances (Grant No. gpa105030). Received 18 overbearing 2012; accepted 7 December 2012 reckon The subroutine of euphemisms is a prevalent linguistic phen predictionon in all terminologys. By apply euphemisms, tribe can in contourred a shot and courteously carry thei r ideas, without making the listeners feel bungle nigh and unpleasant. As a mirror of refinement, the multiplication and development of euphemisms ar well-nigh connect to stopping point.Euphemisms in incline and Chinese atomic spot 18 too abundant, scarce they have virtually(prenominal)(prenominal) battles and similarities in expressions and cultural intensions. The cross-cultural unfitting make of position and Chinese euphemisms can serve up citizenry correctly escort the deep in pass in position and Chinese langu advances and over germ the obstacles in crosscultural talks. Key discussions: Euphemisms; glossiness; Cross- glossiness; Contrastive study WANG Xiaoling, ZHANG Meng, DONG Hailin (2012). CrossCultural Contrastive Study of incline and Chinese Euphemisms.CrossCultural dialogue, 8 (6), 66-70. Available from: http://www. cscanada. net/index. php/ccc/article/view/j. ccc. 1923670020120806. 1356 DOI: http://dx. doi. org/10. 3968/j. ccc. 192367002012 0806. 1356. â€Å"speech”, so the vocalize â€Å"euphemism” literally means â€Å" develop of good omen”. Routledge Dictionary of Langu geezerhood and Linguistics (2000) defines â€Å"euphemism” as â€Å"A amiable of expressing method which aims at making muckle feel little embarrassed by using some nomenclature with vague and ambiguous meaning in view of those which whitethorn make flock feel unpleasant and not consider”.The generation of euphemism has its genial foundation. part conference with others, raft real oft face the home where they can not directly express what they want to say, or sometimes a direct expression exit bm the listeners awkward and unpleasant. In these cases, hoi polloi tend to choose an indirect and round most flair to express their ideas and thoughts, so as to revoke the embarrassment. With this purpose, euphemisms come into cosmos. Whereas the mathematical go a dash of euphemisms is not wakelessl y a neighborly phenomenon, it is in addition a cultural star.The generation of euphemism is to a fault closely related to culture. Due to the pitiable social productivity in the early acquaint of tender- considerted society, large number were lack of scientific and cultural existledge, thus thither existed a superstitious belief that the direct strain of the name of idol or a ghost provide bring them fallacious fortune. Then the names of God and ghosts became language taboo and populate found substitutes of these names. These substitutes past became euphemisms of that time. With the development of the society, euphemisms in all languages to a fault changed.And this on-going change has always being relying on culture. disparate nations possess disparate infixed environment, social patterns, ideological systems, modes of production and honors. all these can be reflected in the intent of language, including the role of euphemisms. 1. EUPHEMISM AND ITS RELATION WITH CULTURE The word â€Å"euphemism” originated from a Latin word. Its prefix â€Å"eu” means â€Å"good”, and â€Å"phemism” means 2 . C U LT U R A L S I M I L A R I T I E S A N D DIFFERENCES REFLECTED BY ENGLISH AND Chinese EUPHEMISMS When we compargon diametric cultures, we lead pose that the procure © Canadian Academy of eastern and Hesperian burnish 66 WANG Xiaoling; ZHANG Meng; DONG Hailin (2012). Cross-Cultural Communication, 8 (6), 66-70 similarities and differences of the developing course of human society ar manifested in cultures. terminology is not that the mirror of culture, scarcely also a part of culture. So the similarities and differences of cultures atomic consider 18 undoubtedly reflected by side of meat and Chinese languages, including euphemisms. 2. 1 Cultural Similarities Reflected by Euphemisms Euphemism as a cultural phenomenon has its particular(prenominal) role to play in culture.Cultural similarities reflected by incline and Chinese euphemisms can be concluded by the functions of euphemisms. Basi knelly communicate, the functions of face and Chinese euphemisms ar the aforementi sensationd(prenominal), which can be divided as taboo-avoiding function, politeness function, and semblance function. These functions point the universal pieces of human culture. 2. 1. 1 Taboo-Avoiding tend In incline and Chinese, there are some course that cannot be directly said out.For example, during the time when Christianity was ordinary in the westward countries, the name of God â€Å"Jehovah” became the biggest taboo, so many euphemisms were created to commute the name, much(prenominal) as â€Å"the Almighty”, â€Å"the autocratic Being”, â€Å"Holy whiz”, â€Å"the arrant(a)”, â€Å"the Creator”, â€Å"the Maker”, â€Å"the Savior”, â€Å"the heat of the world”, â€Å"the Sovereign of the Universe”, â€Å"Our ar rive”, etc.. In ancient China, the names of emperors are also tabooed. For example, Qin Shi Huang, the number 1- relegate honours degree emperor of China, changed â€Å"?? ” (the first month of a lunar year) into â€Å"?? ” so as to avoid the pronunciation of the typeface â€Å"? which is the corresponding as the character â€Å"? ” utilise in his name. Another example is the euphemistic expression of â€Å"death”. large subjugate to a greater extent often than not believe that the greatest misfortune is zero than death, so there are taboos and euphemisms intimately death some(prenominal) in slope and Chinese. The word â€Å"death” cannot be directly mentioned, and euphemisms about death are various. In slope, the word â€Å"die” can be replaced by â€Å"to pass away”, â€Å"to strangle”, â€Å"to be no more”, â€Å"to pass one’s last”, â€Å"to come to an end”, â€Å"to join the majority”, â€Å"to go to one’s rest”, â€Å"to pause the final sleep”, â€Å"to be garner to one’s father”, â€Å" dispel to dust”, â€Å"run one’s race”, â€Å"be no onger with us”, â€Å"to be at peace”, â€Å"to be at rest”, â€Å"to be sleepy in the arms of God/ messiah”, â€Å" turn over the debt of nature”, etc.. In Chinese, the word â€Å"? ” can be replaced by â€Å"????????????? ??????????????????????? ?????????????? ” etc.. 2. 1. 2 Politeness Function It is a usual human psychology for every consistency to be well-thought-of and keep dignity before the others. So to avoid hurting others’ feelings and pride in a conversation, population often use euphemistic expressions in stead of nomenclature that will lead to the unwanted result. For instance, in Chinese, the great unwashed will environ those who are physical handicapped â€Å"? ?” in stead of â€Å"?? . Similarly, in English, the word â€Å"handicapped” is euphemistically expressed by â€Å"disabled” to show people’s respect. The â€Å"deaf” people are described as â€Å"hard of listening”, and â€Å"blind” people are â€Å"the visually challenged”. At present, euphemisms about body figure are more often use than ever before. As more and mo re people pay attention to their figure, you drive to be awake while talking to those who have oftentimes weight. The word â€Å"fat” could never be used. just you can use spoken language like â€Å"plump, stout, out-size, over-weight” to describe such person. In Chinese, it is also more polite to use lecture like â€Å"????? ” etc..The politeness function of euphemisms is well demonstrated by the exposition of these low or humble transmission lines. To some extent, the occupations people are engaged in can show their social status, so people in th e low power structure are usually sensitive towards their jobs. A decent and respectful call of their occupation will show respect for such persons. Therefore, â€Å"sanitation engineer” is created for â€Å"garbage collector”, â€Å"cleaning operative” is created for â€Å"road-sweeper”, â€Å"domestic sponsor” is created for â€Å"maid” and â€Å"security officer” is created for â€Å"janitor”. In modern Chinese, there are also similar euphemisms about occupations.For example, people call â€Å"?? ” in stead of â€Å"?? ”, and â€Å"?? ?” or â€Å"?? ” in stead of â€Å"?? ”. These euphemisms about occupations not lone(prenominal) show the raise of civilization level, but also people’s hit the hayingness of social equity. 2. 1. 3 Deception Function With the development of the society, the use of euphemisms is not unless limited in avoiding taboos and caring for the listeners†™ feelings. On many occasions, it is also employed to pelt the facts, and to achieve some ulterior goals. Euphemisms of this anatomy are widely seen in semipolitical and sparing areas to deceive the public or distort the pacts.For example, words used in war, such as â€Å"invasion” and â€Å" wear” are mantled as â€Å"penetration”, â€Å"involvement” and â€Å"military action”; stroke in a war is disguised as â€Å"break off strive with enemy”; The thousands of homeless people in the war are called â€Å"transfer of community”; â€Å"Attack” is disguised as â€Å" bustling defense”, etc.. These cosmetic words confine the nature and cruelty of war, and provide level-headed excuse for waging wars. For politicians, these euphemistic words are good tools to whitewash themselves and protect themselves from being excused or charged. Euphemisms in the economic area are also widely seen.For example, â€Å"economic crisis” is replaced by â€Å"depression” or â€Å"recession”; â€Å" pitiful nations” is replaced by â€Å"developing nations”, â€Å"developing nations”, or â€Å"emerging nations”. These words all cover up the naive realism to some extent, and the real meaning of these words need careful thinking. 2. 2 Cultural Differences Reflected by Euphemisms Due to the culture difference between English and Chinese, a theme often being talked about in one culture 67 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and western acculturation Cross-Cultural Contrastive Study of English and Chinese Euphemisms ay be tabooed in some other culture, and something unacceptable in one culture may be quite a normal in other(prenominal). 2. 2. 1 distinguishable Attitudes Towards â€Å"Old Age” The westerners are hydrophobic of old age. In their opinion, old age indicates decay. So in many western countries, inquiring others’ age is seen t o be an offense, because â€Å"age” is a sensitive topic. There are many euphemisms describing old age, such as â€Å"senior citizen, advantage in age, the mature, veteran(a) man, full of ages, be feeling one’s ages, past one’s prime” etc.. On the contrary, it is a custom for Chinese people to respect the old.As remote as Chinese people are concerned, â€Å"old age” stands for wisdom and experience. In Chinese, people often add the word â€Å"? ” after a person’s family name to show his respect, such as â€Å"?? ” and â€Å"?? ”. Besides, the word â€Å"? ” can also be added before a person’s family name to show intimacy with this person, such as â€Å"?? ”, â€Å"?? ”. If a person has much(prenominal) experience in an occupation and is respect by others, people will call him or her â€Å"?? ?” â€Å"??? ” or â€Å"??? ” etc.. Other words indicating old age like â€Å" ????????????? ” all show respect to these old people. 2. 2. Attitudes Towards hiding The westerners attach much immensity to privacy, which includes age, marriage, income, apparitional belief, political inclination etc. , and they do not want the others to know much about these contents. For example, a western gentlewoman will take an immediate abhorrence if she is pick outed about her age and marriage state. While in China, you can often hear people around talking about age, marriage and even income. Topics like â€Å"?????? ”, â€Å"??????? ”, â€Å"????? ”, â€Å"?????? ” are not forbidden either. Inquiring others’ recompense or the price of some secluded belongings is also seen as abrupt in the west.If you really want to know the price of an item, you can ask â€Å"It is expensive? ” in stead of directly postulation â€Å"How much is it? ” But in China, you will have no worry to ask the price. Religious belief and political tendency are also private in the west. Questions like â€Å"What party do you pick out for? ” and â€Å"What’s your religion? ” cannot be asked. But in China, these questions are also on the loose(p) to ask. 2. 2. 3 Naming and Appellation Chinese people attach more importance to family than people in the west, and their respect for the senior generation is also sh knowledge in grant and appellation.The name of a young should not be the selfsame(prenominal) as his or her elder generation, even the pronunciation should be different. Young people could not directly call the name of the elderly ones; preferably they call them according to the rank in the family such as â€Å"?? , ?? , ?? , ? ?” etc.. Comparatively, communicative people do not have such strong sense of family rank and social stratum. In the western countries, there is no taboo in naming and appellation. People of different rank in the family hierarchy and social status could c all each other’s name directly. It is common to hear children call their parents and even grandparents’ names.And it is also very common for a jr. person to have a same name with the elder generation. The westerners believe this charitable of appellation and naming is a way of showing intimacy and will roam close the relationship between people. To some extent, it reflects the westerners’ pursuit of equality. 2. 2. 4 The Use of amount Cultures about poesy exist in both Chinese and English. There are different taboos about number in different cultures. In the western culture, the number 13 is seen as an unlucky number which people tend to avoid in their daily life.For example, it is rare to see 13 people gather around the same table while having dinner or meetings. It is also forbidden to have 13 dishes on the dinner table. House number, report number and other number attach all avoid using this number. In Chinese, the pronunciation of â€Å"4” is si milar to the character â€Å"? ” (die), so people are indisposed to use this number in doorplate, allegory number, phone number etc.. The pronunciation of number â€Å"3” is similar to the character â€Å"? ”, so weddings and birthday parties are not held on this day.Besides, there is a saying in Chinese that good things should be in pairs, so it is also a customs duty to hold important things on even number days, so as to longing that good luck could come. 3. EUPHEMISMS AND CROSSCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 3. 1 The Definition of Cross-Cultural Communication Chinese scholar JIA Yuxin and GUAN Shijie defined cross-cultural communication as â€Å"communication between people from different cultural soil” (JIA, 1997) and â€Å"communication between people or stem from one cultural background and people or group from another cultural background” (GUAN, 1996).Larry offered his definition of â€Å"intercultural communication” as â€Å"Intercultu ral communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are unmistakable enough to alter the communication suit” (Larry, 2009). In conclusion, inter-cultural communication, which is a kind of communication behavior, is the communication between people from different cultural background, social psychology, and people speaking different languages. 3. The Influence of Culture Differences on Cross-Cultural Communication While communicating with a person of another language, people always carry out the communication process on the basis of their own language and culture. Obviously culture differences will manifest themselves in the controling and use of euphemisms throughout cross-cultural Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture 68 WANG Xiaoling; ZHANG Meng; DONG Hailin (2012). Cross-Cultural Communication, 8 (6), 66-70 communication. Thus cross-cultural understanding barrier or im kosher use of euphemisms will lead to practical failures. . 2. 1 prosaic Failures Caused by Different Expression Modes English and Chinese euphemisms are typically different in structure and expression mode. Because of these differences, speakers of one language often have impediment in grasping the information of another language. For example, Chinese speakers will be bewildered when they hear those English euphemisms consisted by numbers like â€Å"go to the fourth” (go to the toilet) and â€Å"a forty-four” (a prostitute). There are also some euphemisms in the form of abbreviation, like B. O. (body odor), V. D. C. (venereal disease), and T. B. tuberculosis), which will lead to understanding encumbrance if the readers are lack of relative background information. Similarly, the profound Chinese culture has granted birth to quantities of unique expressions, such as â€Å"??? ”, â€Å"???? ”, â€Å"??? ”, which also make the westerners confused. Besides, the use of twopart representative sayings, such as â€Å"????? â€??? (? )”, â€Å"?????? â€????? ”, and â€Å"???? ?? â€???? (? )” etc. is also a unique feature of Chinese euphemisms. The use of this special structure can help release the mood in an over straightforward Chinese expression, and help readers guess the meaning inside it.But the English readers are not familiar with this kind of Chinese expressions, so they can only sigh towards the contained meaning inside this kind of euphemisms. 3. 2. 2 Pragmatic Failures Caused by Different Value Orientations in Euphemisms The cultural care for difference of euphemisms is best illustrated by words in political and social area. many an(prenominal) euphemistic words in political area are used to moderate the real political purpose. For example, in the Vietnam war, the U. S. government activity called the invasion â€Å"U. S. nvolvement in Vietnam”; The air break to Libya is called â€Å"surgical strikes†; Civilian casualties in the Iraq War are understated as â€Å" corroborative damage”. These euphemisms reflect the subtle spot of the U. S. government to some extent, and at the same time, they show the handiness and concealment of political words. It is easy to be cheated by these diplomatic words without enough cross-cultural study. For another example, in the western countries, the word â€Å" spicy” is used to describe an attractive and bewitch person. If a lady is described as â€Å"sexy”, she will take it as praise and will be very happy.But in traditional Chinese culture, the connotation of â€Å"sexy” is somewhat close to â€Å" sexy”. If a westerner who does not know much about Chinese culture describes a Chinese lady as â€Å"sexy”, she must feel disquieting and take it as an insult earlier than praise. But with China enhancing its communication with the western countries, more and more Chinese people have accepted the west ern culture and began to praise others as â€Å"sexy”. 3. 2. 3 Pragmatic Failures Caused by Different material body Concept Many words in our daily life such as â€Å"big and small”, â€Å"high and low”, â€Å"good and bad”, â€Å"rich and poor” all indicates social rank.Compared with Chinese, English euphemisms about social rank are large in quantity and more vital in usage. For example, in the western countries, people advocate democracy and pursuit sexual activity equality, so they have much encumbrance in understanding males in Chinese feudal society calling their wives â€Å"?? ” and â€Å"?? ”. English-speaking people are also fantastic to the rank below â€Å"the first class”. So in 1989, when West Germany held the 56th realism Foundry Congress, the English instruction assort hotels as follows: A) Deluxe B) First level C) Standard D) Private rooms.This kind of be criteria does not define the hotels below the fi rst class into â€Å"the second class” and â€Å"the tierce class”, thus avoiding people’s psychological gap. At the same time, it upgrades each class invisibly. However this kind of rank is difficult for Chinese people to understand and use. In cross-cultural communication, in vow to avoid these pragmatic failures, language user of both English and Chinese need to sharpen their cross-cultural awareness. It is also requirement to acquire as many as possible euphemistic expressions in another language.The more characteristics we know about the culture and its euphemisms, the less barriers and pragmatic failures we will encounter. Of course, we should also bear in mind the proper situation where a certain euphemism is used; otherwise the overuse of euphemisms will fall out to be pretentious and unnatural. CONCLUSION To perfume up, euphemism is a common and long-standing linguistic as well as socio-cultural phenomenon in both English speaking countries and C hina. As a mirror of culture, euphemisms strongly reflected similarities and differences between English and Chinese cultures.These similarities and differences have brought about creature comforts and difficulties in the process of crosscultural communication. Only when people from different cultures are fully aware of the different cultural background, cultural value orientations and cultural conventions, can they remove pragmatic barriers and carry out smooth and consonant communication successfully. REFERENCES Bussmann (2000). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. capital of Red China: Foreign Language Teaching and explore Press. 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JIA, Yuxin (1997). Intercultural Communication. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Larry, A. Samovar, Richard, E. Porter, & Edwin, R. McDaniel (2009). Communication Between Cultures. Beijing: Peking University Press. LI, Zhongsheng (1991). Taboos and Customs in Chinese Language. Xi’an: Shanxi People’s Press. PAN, Min (2004).Comparative Analysis of English and Chinese Euphemism. Journal of Huaiyin Institute of Technology, (8), 42-44. XUE, Yan (2001). On English Euphemisms. Journal of Lanzhou Commercial College, (12), 108-111. Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture 70 Copyright of Cross-Cultural Communication is the property of Canadian Academy of Oriental & Occidental Culture and its content may not be copied or emailed to eight-fold sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holders express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.\r\n'